Astrology is an ancient system of divination based on the belief that the stars can influence the fate and behavior of men and the general course of human events. A belief in the supernatural powers of celestial bodies was common to the Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians and Chaldeans. In the 4th century BC it reached the Greeks and somewhat later the Romans.

Isaiah (47:13) lists three classes of astrological practitioners common among the Babylonians: “Let now the astrologers, the stargazers, the monthly prognosticators, stand up . . .” . . .

Astrology originated in Mesopotamia, where the celestial bodies were worshipped as deities. In the library of Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, there were large numbers of clay tablets relating to astrology. These contained about 7,000 omens, based on observations of the sun, moon and the five planets. . . .

To the Greeks astrology was hardly known before the conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great. Greek scholars created a new form of astrology and from being an eastern religion it began to acquire the semblance of a science. . . .

Astrology reached Rome in the 2nd century BC. It was banned in 139 BC by a decree of the Senate but nevertheless flourished and became an accepted Roman institution.

“ASTROLOGY” in The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, Rev. Ed., ed. Avraham Negev, 46-47.

ASTARTE; ASHTORETH Fertility goddess of the Canaanites, the Sidonians (1 Kings 11:5) and the Philistines (1 Sam. 31:10, where the name appears in the plural form, Ashtaroth). Ashtoreth is the counterpart of Baal, god of storm and fertilizing rain. The Babylonians and Assyrians knew her by the name of Ashtar, goddess of fertility and love. In the Bible she is referred to as the Queen of Heaven (Jer. 7:18). The cult of Astarte was universal in Palestine in the Canaanite period and was also much favored, especially by women, in the Judean and Israelite kingdoms. Thousands of Astarte figurines made of clay have been found at most of the excavated sites of Canaanite and Israelite periods.

“ASTARTE; ASHTORETH” in The Archaeological Encyclopedia of the Holy Land, Rev. Ed., ed. Avraham Negev, 45.

Our first remark on this subject is, that the ministry is an office, and not merely a work.

Charles Hodge, “What is Presbyterianism?” from address delivered before the Presbyterian
Historical Society at Philadelphia” [Appendix No. 1] in A. A. Hodge, The Confession of
Faith (Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, reprint 1998), 408.

Therefore, it is here necessary to remember, that whatever authority and dignity the
Holy Spirit in Scripture confers on priests, or prophets, or apostles, or successors of
Apostles, is wholly given not to men themselves, but to the ministry to which they are
appointed; or, to speak more plainly, to the word, to the ministry of which they are
appointed.

John Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1989), Book IV.VIII.2.

For were we to go over the whole in order, we should find that they were not invested
with authority to teach or give responses, save in the name and word of the Lord. For
whenever they are called to office, they are enjoined not to bring anything of their own,
but to speak by the mouth of the Lord.

John Calvin, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Henry Beveridge (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, 1989), Book IV.VIII.2.

THE PROLOGUE TO THE PROPHET JONAS *

*(Properly entitled: The Prophet Jonas, with an introduction before teaching to understand him and the right use also of all the scripture, and why it was written, and what is therein to be sought, and shewing wherewith the scripture is locked up that he which readeth it, cannot understand it, though he study therein never so much: and again with what keys it is so opened, that the reader can be stopped out with no subtlety or false doctrine of man, from the true sense and understanding thereof.)

As the envious Philistines stopped the wells of Abraham and filled them up with earth, to put the memorial out of mind, to the intent that they might challenge the ground: even so the fleshly minded hypocrites stop up the veins of life which are in the scripture, with the earth of their traditions, false similitudes and lying allegories: and that of like zeal, to make the scripture their own possession and merchandise: and so shut up the kingdom of heaven which is God’s word neither entering in themselves nor suffering them that would.

The scripture hath a body without, and within a soul, spirit and life. It hath without a bark, a shell and as it were an hard bone for the fleshly minded to gnaw upon. And within it hath pith, kernel, marrow, and all sweetness for God’s elect which he hath chosen to give them his spirit, and to write his law and the faith of his Son in their hearts.

The scripture containeth three things in it: first the law to condemn all flesh: secondarily, the gospel, that is to say, promises of mercy for all that repent and knowledge their sins at the preaching of the law and consent in their hearts that the law is good, and submit themselves to be scholars to learn to keep the law and to learn to believe the mercy that is promised them: and thirdly, the stories and lives of those scholars, both what chances fortuned them, and also by what means their schoolmaster taught them and made them perfect, and how he tried the true from the false.

When the hypocrites come to the law, they put glosses to and make no more of it than of a worldly law which is satisfied with the outward work and which a Turk may also fulfill. When yet God’s law never ceaseth to condemn a man until it be written in his heart and until he keep it naturally without compulsion and all other respect save only of pure love to God and his neighbour, as he naturally eateth when he is an hungred, without compulsion and all other respect, save to slake his hunger only.

And when they come to the gospel, there they mingle their leaven, and say, God now receiveth us no more to mercy, but of mercy receiveth us to penance, that is to wete, holy deeds that make them fat bellies and us their captives, both in soul and body. And yet they feign their idol the pope so merciful, that if thou make a little money glister in his Balam’s eyes, there is neither penance nor purgatory nor any fasting at all but to fly to heaven as swift as a thought and at the twinkling of an eye.

And the lives stones and gests of men which are contained in the bible, they read as things no more pertaining unto them, than a tale of Robin Hood, and as things they wot not whereto they serve, save to feign false descant and juggling allegories, to stablish their kingdom withal. And one of the chiefest and fleshliest study they have, is to magnify the saints above measure and above the truth and with their poetry to make them greater then ever God made them. And if they find any infirmity or sin ascribed unto the saints, that they excuse with all diligence, diminishing the glory of the mercy of God and robbing wretched sinners of all their comfort: and think thereby to flatter the saints and to obtain their favour and to make special advocates of them: even as a man would obtain the favour of worldly tyrants: as they also feign the saints much more cruel than ever was any heathen man and more wreakful and vengeable than the poets feign their gods or their furies that torment the souls in hell, if their evens be not fasted and their images visited and saluted with a paternoster (which prayer only our lips be acquainted with our hearts understanding none at all) and worshipped with a candle and the offering of our devotion in the place which they have chosen to hear supplications and meek petitions of their clients therein.

But thou reader think of the law of God how that it is altogether spiritual, and so spiritual that it is never fulfilled with deeds or works, until they flow out of thine heart, with as great love toward thy neighbour, for no deserving of his, yea though he be thine enemy, as Christ loved thee and died for thee, for no deserving of thine, but even when thou wast his enemy. And in the mean time, thorowout all our infancy and childhood in Christ, till we be grown up into perfect men in the full knowledge of Christ and full love of Christ again and of our neighbours for his sake, after the example of his love to us, remember that the fulfilling of the law is, a fast faith in Christ’s blood coupled with our profession and submitting ourselves to do better.

And of the gospel or promises which thou meetest in the scripture, believe fast that God will fulfill them unto thee, and that unto the uttermost jot, at the repentance of thine heart, when thou turnest to him and forsakest evil, even of his goodness and fatherly mercy unto thee, and not for thy flattering him with hypocritish works of thine own feigning. So that a fast faith only without respect of all works, is the forgiveness both of the sin which we did in time of ignorance with lust and consent to sin, and also of all the sin which we do by chance and of frailty, after that we are come to knowledge, and have professed the law out of our hearts. And all deeds serve only for to help our neighbours and to tame our flesh that we fall not to sin again, and to exercise our souls in virtue; and not to make satisfaction to God-ward for the sin that is once past.

And all other stories of the bible, without exception, are the practising of the law and of the gospel, and are true and faithful examples and sure earnest that God will even so deal with us, as he did with them, in all infirmities, in all temptations, and in all like cases and chances. Wherein ye see on the one side, how fatherly and tenderly and with all compassion God entreateth his elect which submit themselves as scholars, to learn to walk in the ways of his laws, and to keep them of love. If they forgat themselves at a time and went astray, he sought them out and fetched them again with all mercy: If they fell and hurt themselves, he healed them again with all compassion and tenderness of heart. He hath oft brought great tribulation and adversity upon his elect: but all of fatherly love only to teach them and to make them see their own hearts and the sin that there lay hid, that they might afterward feel his mercy. For his mercy waited upon them, to rid them out again, as soon as they were learned and come to the knowledge of their own hearts: so that he never cast man away how deep soever he had sinned, save them only which had first cast the yoke of his laws from their necks, with utter defiance and malice of heart.

Which examples how comfortable are they for us, when we be fallen into sin and God is come upon us with a scourge, that we despair not, but repent with full hope of mercy after the examples of mercy that are gone before? And therefore they were written for our learning, as testifieth Paul Rom. xv. to comfort us, that we might the better put our hope and trust in God, when we see how merciful he hath been in times past unto our weak brethren that are gone before, in all their adversities, need, temptations, yea and horrible sins into which they now and then fell.

And on the other side ye see how they that hardened their hearts and sinned of malice and refused mercy that was offered them and had no power to repent, perished at the latter end with all confusion and shame mercilessly. Which examples are very good and necessary, to keep us in awe and dread in time of prosperity, as thou mayest see by Paul 1 Cor. x. that we abide in the fear of God, and wax not wild and fall to vanities and so sin and provoke God and bring wrath upon us.

And thirdly ye see in that practice, how as God is merciful and long suffering, even so were all his true prophets and preachers, bearing the infirmities of their weak brethren, and their own wrongs and injuries, with all patience and long suffering, never casting any of them off their backs, until they sinned against the holy ghost, maliciously persecuting the open and manifest truth: contrary unto the example of the pope, which in sinning against God and to quench the truth of his holy spirit, is ever chief captain and trumpet blower to set other a-work, and seeketh only his own freedom, liberty, privilege, wealth, prosperity, profit, pleasure, pastime, honour and glory, with the bondage, thralldom, captivity, misery, wretchedness, and vile subjection of his brethren: and in his own cause is so fervent, so stiff and cruel, that he will not suffer one word spoken against his false majesty, wily inventions and juggling hypocrisy to be unavenged, though all Christendom should be set together by the ears, and should cost be cared not how many hundred thousand their lives.

Now, that thou mayest read Jonas fruitfully and not as a poet’s fable, but as an obligation between God and thy soul, as an earnest penny given thee of God, that he will help thee in time of need, if thou turn to him and as the word of God the only food and life of thy soul, this mark and note. First count Jonas the friend of God, and a man chosen of God to testify his name unto the world: but yet a young scholar, weak and rude, after the fashion of the apostles, while Christ was with them yet bodily. Which, though Christ taught them ever to be meek and to humble themselves, yet oft strove among themselves who should be greatest. The sons of Zebedee would sit, the one on the right hand of Christ, the other on the left. They would pray, that fire might descend from heaven, and consume the Samaritans.

When Christ asked who say men that I am Peter answered, thou art the son of the living God, as though Peter had been as perfect as an angel. But immediately after, when Christ preached unto them of his death, and passion, Peter was angry and rebuked Christ and thought earnestly that he had raved and not wist what he said: as at another time, when Christ was so fervently busied in healing the people, that he had no leisure to eat, they went out to hold him, supposing that he had been beside himself. And one that cast out devils in Christ’s name they forbade, because he waited not on them, so glorious were they yet.

And though Christ taught always to forgive, yet Peter after long going to school asked whether men should forgive seven times, thinking that eight times had been too much. And at the last supper Peter would have died with Christ, but yet within few hours after, he denied him, both cowardly and shamefully. And after the same manner, though he had so long heard that no man might avenge himself, but rather turn the other cheek to, than to smite again, yet when Christ was in taking, Peter asked whether it were lawful to smite with the sword, and tarried none answer, but laid on rashly. So that though when we come first unto the knowledge of the truth, and the peace is made between God and us, we love his laws, and believe and trust in him, as in our father, and have good hearts unto him and be born anew in the spirit: yet we are but children and young scholars weak and feeble; and must have leisure to grow in the spirit, in knowledge, love and in the deeds thereof, as young children must have time to grow in their bodies.

And God our father and schoolmaster feedeth us and teacheth us according unto the capacity of our stomachs, and maketh us to grow and wax perfect, and fineth us and trieth us as gold, in the fire of temptations and tribulations. As Moses witnesseth Deut. viii. saying: remember all the way by which the Lord thy God carried thee this forty years in the wilderness, to humble thee and to tempt or provoke thee, that it might be known what were in thine heart. He brought thee into adversity and made thee an hungred and then fed thee with manna which neither thou nor yet thy fathers ever knew of, to teach that man liveth not by bread only, but by all that proceedeth out of the mouth of God. For the promises of God are life unto all that cleave unto them, much more than is bread and bodily sustenance: as the journey of the children of Israel out of Egypt into the land promised them, ministereth thee notable examples and that abundantly, as doth all the rest of the bible also. Howbeit, it is impossible for flesh to believe and to trust in the truth of God’s promises, until he have learned it in much tribulation, after that God hath delivered him out thereof again.

God therefore to teach Jonas and to shew him his own heart and to make him perfect and to instruct us also by his example, sent him out of the land of Israel where he was a prophet, to go among the heathen people and to the greatest and mightiest city of the world then, called Ninive: to preach that within forty days they should all perish for their sins and that the city should be overthrown. Which message the free will of Jonas had as much power to do, as the weakest hearted woman in the world hath power, if she were commanded, to leap into a tub of living snakes and adders: as happily if God had commanded Sarah to have sacrificed her son Isaac, as he did Abraham, she would have disputed with him ere she had done it, or though she were strong enough, yet many an holy saint could not have found in their hearts, but would have run away from the presence of the commandment of God with Jonas if they had been so strongly tempted.

For Jonas thought of this manner: lo, I am here a prophet unto God’s people the Israelites. Which though they have God’s word testified unto them daily, yet despise it and worship God under the likeness of calves and after all manner fashions save after his own word and therefore are of all nations the worst and most worthy of punishment. And yet God for love of few that are among them and for his name’s sake spareth and defendeth them. How then should God take so cruel vengeance on so great a multitude of them to whom his name was never preached to and therefore are not the tenth part so evil as these? If I shall therefore go preach so shall I lie and shame myself and God thereto and make them the more to despise God and set the less by him and to be the more cruel unto his people.

And upon that imagination he fled from the face or presence of God: that is, out of the country where God was worshipped in and from prosecuting of God’s commandment, and thought, I will get me another way, among the heathen people, and be no more a prophet, but live at rest and out of all cumbrance. Nevertheless, the God of all mercy, which careth for his elect children, and turneth all unto good to them, and smiteth them to heal them again, and killeth them to make them live again, and playeth with them (as a father doth sometime with his young ignorant children), and tempteth them, and proveth them to make them see their own hearts, provided for Jonas, how all things should be.

When Jonas was entered into the ship, he laid him down to sleep and to take his rest: that is, his conscience was tossed between the commandment of God which sent him to Nineve, and his fleshly wisdom that dissuaded and counselled him the contrary and at the last prevailed against the commandment and carried him another way, as a ship caught between two streams, and as poets feign the mother of Meleager to be between divers affections, while to avenge her brother’s death she sought to slay her own son. Whereupon for very pain and tediousness, he lay down to sleep, for to put the commandment which so gnew and fretted his conscience, out of mind, as the nature of all wicked is, when they have sinned a good, to seek all means with riot, revel and pastime, to drive the remembrance of sin out of their thoughts or as Adam did, to cover their nakedness with aprons of pope holy works. But God awoke him out of his dream, and set his sins before his face.

For when the lot had caught Jonas, then be sure that his sins came to remembrance again and that his conscience raged no less than the waves of the sea. And then he thought that he only was a sinner and the heathen that were in the ship none in respect of him, and thought also, as verily as he was fled from God, that as verily God had cast him away: for the sight of the rod maketh the natural child not only to see and to knowledge his fault, but also to forget all his father’s old mercy and kindness. And then he confessed his sin openly and had yet lever perish alone than that the other should have perished with him for his sake: and so of very desperation to have lived any longer, bade cast him into the sea betimes, except they would be lost also.

To speak of lots, how far forth they are lawful, is a light question. First to use them for the breaking of strife, as when partners, their goods as equally divided as they can, take every man his part by lot, to avoid all suspicion of deceitfulness: and as the apostles in the first of the Acts, when they sought another to succeed Judas the traitor, and two persons were presented, then to break strife and to satisfy all parties, did cast lots whether should be admitted, desiring God to temper them and to take whom he knew most meet, seeing they wist not whether to prefer, or haply could not all agree on either is lawful, and in all like cases. But to abuse them unto the tempting of God and to compel him therewith to utter things whereof we stand in doubt, when we have no commandment of him so to do, as these heathen here did, though God turned it unto his glory, cannot be but evil.

The heathen shipmen astonied at the sight of the miracle, feared God, prayed to him, offered sacrifice and vowed vows. And I doubt not but that some of them or haply all came thereby unto the true knowledge and true worshipping of God and were won to God in their souls. And thus God which is infinite merciful in all his ways, wrought their soul’s health out of the infirmity of Jonas, even of his good will and purpose and love wherewith he loved them before the world was made, and not of chance, as it appeareth unto the eyes of the ignorant.

And that Jonas was three days and three nights in the belly of his fish: we cannot thereby prove unto the Jews and infidels or unto any man, that Christ must therefore die and be buried and rise again. But we use the example and likeness to strength the faith of the weak. For he that believeth the one cannot doubt in the other: inasmuch as the hand of God was no less mighty in preserving Jonas alive against all natural possibility and in delivering him safe out of his fish, than in raising up Christ again out of his sepulchre. And we may describe the power and virtue of the resurrection thereby, as Christ himself borroweth the similitude thereto Matt. xii. saying unto the Jews that came about him and desired a sign or a wonder from heaven to certify them that he was Christ: this evil and wedlock breaking nation (which break the wedlock of faith wherewith they be married unto God, and believe in their false works) seek a sign, but there shall no sign be given them save the sign of the prophet Jonas. For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the belly of the whale, even so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth. Which was a watch word as we say, and a sharp threatening unto the Jews and as much to say as thus, ye hard hearted Jews seek a sign: lo, this shall be your sign, as Jonas was raised out of the sepulchre of his fish, and then sent unto the Ninevites to preach that they should perish, even so shall I rise again out of my sepulchre, and come and preach repentance unto you. See therefore when ye see the sign, that ye repent or else ye shall surely perish and not escape. For though the infirmities which ye now see in my flesh be a let unto your faiths, ye shall then be without excuse when ye see so great a miracle and so great power of God shed out upon you. And so Christ came again after the resurrection, in his spirit, and preached repentance unto them, by the mouth of his apostles and disciples, and with miracles of the holy ghost. And all that repented not perished shortly after and were for the most part slain with sword and the rest carried away captive into all quarters of the world for an example, as ye see unto this day.

And in like manner since the world began, wheresoever repentance was offered and not received, there God took cruel vengeance immediately: as ye see in the flood of Noe, in the overthrowing of Sodom and Gomorrah and all the country about: and as ye see of Egypt, of the Amorites, Cananites and afterward of the very Israelites, and then at the last of the Jews too, and of the Assyrians and Babilonians and so thorowout all the empires of the world.

Gildas preached repentance unto the old Britains that inhabited England: they repented not, and therefore God sent in their enemies upon them on every side and destroyed them up and gave the land unto other nations. And great vengeance hath been taken in that land for sin since that time.

Wicliffe preached repentance unto our fathers not long since: they repented not for their hearts were indurate and their eyes blinded with their own pope holy righteousness wherewith they had made their souls gay against the receiving again of the wicked spirit that bringeth seven worse than himself with him, and maketh the latter end worse than the beginning: for in open sins there is hope of repentance, but in holy hypocrisy none at all. But what followed? They slew their true and right king, and set up three wrong kings a row, under which all the noble blood was slain up and half the commons thereto, what in France and what with their own sword, in fighting among themselves for the crown and the cities and towns decayed and the land brought half into a wilderness, in respect of that it was before.

And now Christ to preach repentance, is risen yet once again out of his sepulchre in which the pope had buried him and kept him down with his pillars and poleaxes and all disguisings of hypocrisy, with guile, wiles and falsehood, and with the sword of all princes which he had blinded with his false merchandise. And as I doubt not of the examples that are past, so am I sure that great wrath will follow, except repentance turn it back again, and cease it.

When Jonas had been in the fish’s belly a space and the rage of his conscience was somewhat quieted and suaged and he come to himself again and had received a little hope, the qualms and pangs of desperation which went over his heart, half overcome, he prayed, as he maketh mention in the text saying Jonas prayed unto the Lord his God out of the belly of the fish. But the words of that prayer are not here set. The prayer that here standeth in the text, is the prayer of praise and thanksgiving which he prayed and wrote when he was escaped and past all jeopardy.

In the end of which prayer he saith, I will sacrifice with the voice of thanksgiving and pay that I have vowed that saving cometh of the Lord. For verily to confess out of the heart, that all benefits come of God, even out of the goodness of his mercy and not deserving of our deeds, is the only sacrifice that pleaseth God. And to believe that God only is the saver, is the thing that all the Jews vowed in their circumcision, as we in our baptism. Which vow Jonas now taught with experience, promiseth to pay. For those outward sacrifices of beasts, unto which Jonas had haply ascribed too much before, were but feeble and childish things and not ordained, that the works of themselves should be a service unto God, but unto the people, to put them in remembrance of this inward sacrifice of thanks and of faith, to trust and believe in God the only saver. Which signification when it was away, they were abominable and devilish idolatry and image service: as our ceremonies and sacraments are become now to all that trust and believe in the work of them and are not taught the significations, to edify their souls with knowledge and the doctrine of God.

When Jonas was cast upon land again, then his will was free and had power to go whither God sent him and to do what God bade, his own imaginations laid apart. For he had been at a new school, yea and in a furnace where he was purged of much refuse and dross of fleshly wisdom, which resisted the wisdom of God and led Jonas’s will contrary unto the will of God. For as far as we be blind in Adam, we cannot but seek and will our own profit, pleasure, and glory. And as far as we be taught in the Spirit, we cannot but seek and will the pleasure and glory of God only.

And as for the three days’ journey of Nineve, whether it were in length or to go round about it or thorow all the streets, I commit unto the discretion of other men. But I think that it was then the greatest city of the world.

And that Jonas went a day’s journey in the city: I suppose he did it not in one day: but went fair and easily preaching here a sermon, and there another and rebuked the sin of the people, for which they must perish.

And when thou art come unto the repentance of the Ninevites, there hast thou sure earnest, that howsoever angry God be, yet he remembereth mercy unto all that truly repent and believe in mercy. Which ensample our saviour Christ also casteth in the teeth of the indurate Jews, saying the Ninevites shall rise in judgment with this nation, and condemn them; for they repented at the preaching of Jonas, and behold a greater than Jonas is here, meaning of himself. At whose preaching yet, though it were never so mighty to pierce the heart, and for all his miracles thereto, the hard hearted Jews could not repent: when the heathen Ninevites repented at the bare preaching of Jonas, rebuking their sins without any miracle at all.

Why? For the Jews had leavened the spiritual law of God and with their glosses had made it altogether earthly and fleshly, and so had set a veil or covering on Moses’ face, to shadow and darken the glorious brightness of his countenance. It was sin to steal: but to rob widows’ houses under a colour of long praying, and to poil in the name of offerings, and to snare the people with intolerable constitutions against all love, to catch their money out of their purses, was no sin at all.

To smite father and mother was sin: but to withdraw help from them at their need, for blind zeal of offering, unto the profit of the holy pharisees, was then as meritorious as it is now to let all thy kin choose whether they will sink or swim, while thou buildest and makest goodly foundations for holy people which thou hast chosen to be thy Christ, for to supple thy soul with the oil of their sweet blessings, and to be thy Jesus for to save thy soul from the purgatory of the blood that only purgeth sin, with their watching, fasting, woolwardgoing and rising at midnight etc. wherewith yet they purge not themselves from their covetousness, pride, lechery, or any vice that thou seest among the lay people.

It was great sin for Christ to heal the people on the sabbath day, unto the glory of God his Father, but none at all for them to help their cattle unto their own profit.

It was sin to eat with unwashen hands or on an unwashen table, or out of an unwashen dish: but to eat out of that purified dish that which came of bribery, theft and extortion, was no sin at all.

It was exceeding meritorious to make many disciples: but to teach them to fear God in his ordinances, had they no care at all.

The high prelates so defended the right of holy church and so feared the people with the curse of God and terrible pains of hell, that no man durst leave the vilest herb in his garden untithed. And the offering and things dedicate unto God for the profit of his holy vicars were in such estimation and reverence, that it was a much greater sin to swear truly by them, than to forswear thyself by God: what vengeance then of God, and how terrible and cruel damnation think ye preached they to fall on them that had stolen so the holy things? And yet saith Christ, that righteousness and faith in keeping promise, mercy and indifferent judgment were utterly trodden under foot, and clean despised of those blessed fathers which so mightily maintained Aaron’s patrimony and had made it so prosperous and environed it, and walled it about on every side with the fear of God, that no man durst touch it.

It was great holiness to garnish the sepulchres of the prophets and to condemn their own fathers for slaying of them: and yet were they themselves for blind zeal of their own constitutions as ready as their fathers to slay whosoever testified unto them, the same truth which the prophets testified unto their fathers. So that Christ compareth all the righteousness of those holy patriarchs unto the outward beauty of a painted sepulchre full of stench and all uncleanness within.

And finally to beguile a man’s neighbour in subtle bargaining and to wrap and compass him in with cautels of the law, was then as it is now in the kingdom of the pope. By the reason whereof they excluded the law of love out of their hearts, and consequently all true repentance: for how could they repent of that they could not see to be sin?

And on the other side they had set up a righteousness of holy works, to cleanse their souls withal: as the pope sanctifieth us with holy oil, holy bread, holy salt, holy candles, holy dumb ceremonies and holy dumb blessings, and with whatsoever holiness thou wilt save with the holiness of God’s word which only speaketh unto the heart, and sheweth the soul her filthiness and uncleanness of sin, and leadeth her by the way of repentance unto the fountain of Christ’s blood to wash it away thorow faith. By the reason of which false righteousness they were disobedient unto the righteousness of God, which is the forgiveness of sin in Christ’s blood and could not believe it.

And so, thorow fleshly interpreting the law and false imagined righteousness, their hearts were hardened, and made as stony as clay in a hot furnace of fire, that they could receive neither repentance nor faith or any manner of grace at all.

But the heathen Ninevites, though they were blinded with lusts a-good, yet were in those two points uncorrupt and unhardened, and therefore, with the only preaching of Jonas came unto the knowledge of their sins, and confessed them and repented truly and turned every man from his evil deeds and declared their sorrow of heart and true repentance, with their deeds which they did out of faith and hope of forgiveness, chastising their bodies with prayer and fasting and with taking all pleasures from the flesh: trusting, as God was angry for their wickedness, even so should he forgive them of his mercy, if they repented, and forsook their miss living.

And in the last end of all, thou hast yet a goodly example of learning, to see how earthy Jonas is still for all his trying in the whale’s belly. He was so sore displeased because the Ninevites perished not, that he was weary of his life and wished after the death for very sorrow and pain that he had lost the glory of his prophesying, in that his prophecy come not to pass. But God rebuked him with a likeness, saying: it grieveth thine heart for the loss of a vile shrub or spray, whereon thou bestowedst no labour or cost, neither was it thine handwork. How much more then should grieve mine heart, the loss of so great a multitude of innocents as are in Ninive, which are all mine hands’ work? Nay Jonas, I am God over all, and father as well unto the heathen as unto the Jews and merciful to all and warn ere I smite: neither threat I so cruelly by any prophet, but that I will forgive if they repent and ask mercy: neither on the other side, whatsoever I promise will I fulfill it, save for their sakes only which trust in me and submit themselves to keep my laws of very love, as natural children.

On this manner to read the scripture is the right use thereof and why the holy ghost caused it to be written. That is, that thou first seek out the law what God will have thee to do, interpreting it spiritually without gloss or covering the brightness of Moses’ face; so that thou feel in thine heart, how that it is damnable sin before God, not to love thy neighbour that is thine enemy, as purely as Christ loved thee, and that not to love thy neighbour in thine heart, is to have committed already all sin against him. And therefore until that love be come, thou must knowledge unfeignedly that there is sin in the best deed thou doest. And it must earnestly grieve thine heart and thou must wash all thy good deeds in Christ’s blood, ere they can be pure and an acceptable sacrifice unto God, and must desire God the father for his sake, to take thy deeds a worth and to pardon the imperfectness of them, and to give thee power to do them better, and with more fervent love.

And on the other side thou must search diligently for the promises of mercy which God hath promised thee again. Which two points, that is to wete, the law spiritually interpreted, how that all is damnable sin that is not unfeigned love out of the ground and bottom of the heart after the example of Christ’s love to us, because we be all equally created and formed of one God our father, and indifferently bought and redeemed with one blood of our saviour Jesus Christ: and that the promises be given unto a repenting soul that thirsteth and longeth after them, of the pure and fatherly mercy of God thorow our faith only without all deserving of our deeds or merits of our works, but for Christ’s sake alone and for the merits and deservings of his works, death, and passions that he suffered altogether for us, and not for himself: which two points I say, if they be written in thine heart, are the keys which so open all the scripture unto thee, that no creature can lock thee out, and with which thou shalt go in and out, and find pasture and food everywhere. And if these lessons be not written in thine heart, then is all the scripture shut up, as a kernel in the shell, so that thou mayest read it and commune of it and rehearse all the stories of it and dispute subtly and be a profound sophister, and yet understand not one jot thereof.

And thirdly, that thou take the stories and lives which are contained in the bible, for sure and undoubted examples, that God so will deal with us unto the world’s end.

Herewith reader farewell and be commended unto God, and unto the grace of his spirit. And first see that thou stop not thine ears unto the calling of God, and that thou harden not thine heart beguiled with fleshly interpreting of the law and false imagined and hypocritish righteousness, and so the Ninevites rise with thee at the day of judgment and condemn thee.

And secondarily if thou find ought amiss, when thou seest thyself in the glass of God’s word, think it necessary wisdom, to amend the same betimes, monished and warned by the examples of other men, rather than to tarry until thou be beaten also.

And thirdly if it shall so chance that the wild lusts of thy flesh shall blind thee and carry thee clean away with them for a time: yet at the latter end, when the God of all mercy shall have compassed thee in on every side with temptations, tribulation, adversities and cumbrance, to bring thee home again unto thine own heart, and to set thy sins which thou wouldest so fain cover and put out of mind with delectation of voluptuous pastimes, before the eyes of thy conscience: then call the faithful example of Jonas and all like stories unto thy remembrance, and with Jonas turn unto thy Father that smote thee: not to cast thee away, but to lay a corrosive and a fretting plaster unto the pock that lay hid and fret inward, to draw the disease out, and to make it appear, that thou mightest feel thy sickness and the danger thereof and come and receive the healing plaster of mercy.

And forget not that whatsoever example of mercy God hath shewed since the beginning of the world, the same is promised thee, if thou wilt in like manner turn again, and receive it as they did. And with Jonas be acknowen of thy sin and confess it and knowledge it unto thy Father.

And as the law which fretteth thy conscience, is in thine heart, and is none outward thing, even so seek within thy heart, the plaster of mercy, the promises of forgiveness in our saviour Jesus Christ, according unto all the examples of mercy that are gone before.

And with Jonas let them that wait on vanities and seek God here and there and in every temple save in their hearts go, and seek thou the testament of God in thine heart. For in thine heart is the word of the law, and in thine heart is the word of faith in the promises of mercy in Jesus Christ. So that if thou confess with a repenting heart and knowledge and surely believe that Jesus is Lord over all sin, thou art safe.

And finally when the rage of thy conscience is ceased and quieted with fast faith in the promises of mercy, then offer with Jonas the offering of praise and thanksgiving, and pay the vow of thy baptism, that God only saveth, of his only mercy and goodness: that is, believe steadfastly and preach constantly, that it is God only that smiteth, and God only that healeth: ascribing the cause of thy tribulation unto thine own sin, and the cause of thy deliverance unto the mercy of God.

And beware of the leaven that saith we have power in our free will before the preaching of the gospel, to deserve grace, to keep the law of congruity, or God to be unrighteous. And say with John in the first chapter, that as the law was given by Moses, even so grace to fulfill it is given by Christ. And when they say our deeds with grace deserve heaven, say thou with Paul Rom. vi. that everlasting life is the gift of God thorow Jesus Christ our Lord, and that we be made sons by faith John i. and therefore heirs of God with Christ Rom. viii. And say that we receive all of God thorow faith that followeth repentance and that we do not our works unto God, but either unto ourselves, to slay the sin that remaineth in the flesh, and to wax perfect either unto our neighbours which do as much for us again in other things. And when a man exceedeth in gifts of grace, let him understand that they be given him, as well for his weak brethren, as for him self: as though all the bread be committed unto the panter, yet for his fellows with him, which give the thanks unto their lord, and recompense the panter again with other kind service in their offices. And when they say that Christ hath made no satisfaction for the sin we do after our baptism: say thou with the doctrine of Paul, that in our baptism we receive the merits of Christ’s death thorow repentance and faith of which two baptism is the sign: and though when we sin of frailty after our baptism, we receive the sign no more, yet we be renewed again thorow repentance and faith in Christ’s blood, which twain, the sign of baptism ever continued among us in baptizing our young children doth ever keep us in mind and call us back again unto our profession if we be gone astray, and promiseth us forgiveness. Neither can actual sin be washed away with our works, but with Christ’s blood: neither can there be any other sacrifice or satisfaction to God-ward for them, save Christ’s blood. Forasmuch as we can do no works unto God, but receive only of his mercy with our repenting faith, thorow Jesus Christ our Lord and only saviour: unto whom and unto God our Father thorow him, and unto his holy spirit, that only purgeth, sanctifieth and washeth us in the innocent blood of our redemption, be praise for ever. Amen.

Prologues to the Old Testament by William Tyndale 1530 (faithofgod.net)

For versatility of expression and brilliance of imagery Isaiah had no superior, not even a rival. His style marks the climax of Hebrew literary art. Epigrams and metaphors, particularly of flood, storm, and sound (1:13; 5:8, 22; 8:8; 10:22; 28:17, 20; 30:28, 30), interrogation and dialogue (6:8; 10:8f.), antithesis and alliteration (1:18; 3:24; 17:10, 12), hyperbole and parable (2:7; 5:1-7; 28:23-29), even paronomasia, or play upon words (5:7; 7:9), characterize Isaiah’s book as the great masterpiece of Hebrew literature.

G. L Robinson & R. K. Harrison, “Isaiah” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 2:885.

The original purpose of God, that man be created in His own image and after His likeness, will thus be brought to perfect and glorious fulfillment in the new creation, when the redeemed people of God bear the image of their Lord and Head, who bore the image of sinful man for them, and who is Himself the express image of God.

G. W. Bromiley, “Image of God” in The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 2:805.

The letter of James includes several topics of importance. But the debate over whether James contradicts Paul is perhaps the most famous topic associated with the letter, and our understanding of James is the worse for it. Martin Luther suggested that the statement “a person is considered righteous by what they do and not by faith alone” (2:24) contradicts Paul’s theology of salvation by faith alone, especially as it is stated in Galatians 2:16. And ever since, it is that controversy that is most strongly associated with James’s letter, overshadowing the rich contribution of the letter to Christian thought.

Karen H. Jobes, Letters to the Church: A Survey of Hebrews and the General Epistles, 172.

The main course of this development [i.e., biblical criticism and formation of modern world] is described in the following pages as a movement which goes from the Continent to England and then at a later stage back to the Continent again. I have chosen England and the period of English Deism as the climax of the development I have traced because it was in that country, with its characteristic theological and philosophical history, not to mention its distinctive ecclesiastical politics, that typical views of the world developed which were to have lasting influence in forming even the hidden presuppositions in the interpretation of the Old Testament and in biblical exegesis generally. England can claim a prominent place in the history of the interpretation of the Bible. As Scholder already recognized, Germany did not join in this development until late in the eighteenth century.

Henning Graf Reventlow, The Authority of the Bible and the Rise of the Modern World, 4.

When we look for the real roots of those first reflections which brought about a critical concern with the Bible, we come upon a largescale cultural movement throughout Europe which must be set alongside the Reformation as the most powerful force in the formation of the modern world. There is a clear line of development in the history of theology, stages of which can be seen in late mediaeval Spiritualism, the rationalistic and moralistic trends within Humanism and the Anabaptist movement, and finally in the two great trends which dominated church politics: Puritanism and rationalistic liberalism (Latitudinarianism and Deism proper) in England. Writers have aptly spoken of the ‘two Reformations’ which stand in juxtaposition in the sixteenth century and which were a definitive influence on later developments. This second line, which has also been sweepingly called ‘Humanism’ in contrast to the message of the Reformation, was much more influential in the development of the cultural history of modern times. It, and not the Reformation proper, also determined the relationship of most recent academic Protestant theology to the Bible; its basic views have been largely normative for Old Testament exegesis.

Henning Graf Reventlow, The Authority of the Bible and the Rise of the Modern World, 3.

Any attentive observer will note a considerable decline in the significance of biblical study within the general framework of Protestant theology as it is practised in universities and church colleges and as it affects the work of local church communities. . . . If we are to deal with this situation, we must first take account of the developments which have led to it. As is always the case in the history of ideas, the external situation is simply the expression and consequence of internal developments which began long before their consequences became evident, and which have undermined the apparently secure foundation of theology as a discipline.

Henning Graf Reventlow, The Authority of the Bible and the Rise of the Modern World, 1.