Taking their local witness in session minutes together with the material culture they have left us, we now have a Reformation more complex than the textbooks have offered, ridden with tension and contradiction, but for all that more credible than the received version and certainly more illuminating of the larger population’s multivalent perceptions and receptions of the new ideas.

Margo Todd, The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland, 404.

When, as tradition has it, Martin Luther ( 1483–1546 ) nailed his theses on indulgences to the door of the castle church of Wittenberg in 1517 , the hammer blows appeared to usher in a new era for the church. Luther’s act is often considered the beginning of the Reformation. However, a close look at the theses will make it clear that they do not condemn indulgences as such, but only the misuse of them. When it comes to content, Luther’s first act of reform was therefore more medieval than has commonly been assumed. But the form of this important act in the history of the church also must be seen against a medieval background. Nailing theses to a door was not an unusual thing to do, since theological disputations were regularly held on theses that previously had been made known. When Luther nailed those famous theses to the door, his intention was to enter into a theological disputation . The disputation genre had developed in the medieval schools and formed an important part of the scholastic method . Luther’s hammer blows may have drawn the curtains on the Middle Ages and heralded a new era in church history, but as such his first act of reformation was entirely medieval.

“The Method of the Schools: Medieval Scholasticism” by Pieter L. Rouwendal in WILLEM J. VAN ASSELT, INTRODUCTION TO REFORMED SCHOLASTICISM, 79.

In the Retractions , a look back over his life and work, Augustine describes the polemics with the Pelagians as a God-given opportunity to deepen his understanding of the doctrine of grace.

“The Teacher of the Ancient Church: Augustine” by Maarten Wisse in Willem J. van Asselt, Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism, 75.

And we shall deal first with the justification of the sinner in the sight of God, as this is easily the foremost locus in theology, and for us the one most salutary. And if this locus is suppressed, falsified, or overturned, it would not be possible to keep the purity of the teaching in other loci or to maintain a true Church. Now the main point and basis of this locus is the fact that a merciful and just God pardons the sins of believers through the righteousness of his Son and causes then to be saved.

Synopsis of a Purer Theology, Vol. 2, 384.

True Gospel-based repentance consists of two types. Universal repentance occurs whenever someone crosses over from a state of sin to a state of righteousness and is converted to God for the first time. And particular repentance occurs when someone who has already been converted and believes is overtaken by sin and then grieves over it and repents from it.

Synopsis of a Purer Theology, Vol. 2, 381.

From the very beginning the promise about “the seed of the woman that will crush the head of the serpent” (Gen 3:15) included the doctrine of God’s will about resurrection.

Synopsis of a Purer Theology, Vol. 2, 718.

V. 9 light in the Lord] The faithful are called light, not only because they have the outward light of the Word before them, and the inward light of the Spirit within them; but also because they give light to others, insomuch that their honest conversation reproveth the life of the wicked ones (Matt. 5:16; Phil. 2:15).

English Annotations (1645)

V. 22 But the fruit of the Spirit] Therefore they are not the fruits of free-will, but so far forth as our will is made free by grace. He saith not, the works of the Spirit, as before the works of the flesh, but the fruits of the Spirit, to teach us, that good works are not only the effects of God’s Spirit, but also that they are acceptable and pleasing unto him, like most sweet and wholesome fruits (Matt. 3:8; John 15:8).

V. 23 against such there is no law] Such may be either referred to the fruits of the Spirit, or to the persons who bring forth such fruit, against men so qualified there is no law to condemn them: for the law of God, which is so severe and terrible to all men that are in the state of sin, is not so for all that unto the children of God, that do not maliciously set themselves against it, neither are they liable to the malediction thereof, they submitting themselves willingly to the same, as a gentle mistress of their actions, and guide of their life and conversation.

English Annotations (1645)

first apostles] The first and uppermost place is given to the Apostles, for that they were called unto that Office immediately by Christ without any intermediate human authority (Gal. 1:1); they had manifold preheminencies (sic) above other Doctors and Pastors, they could not error in matter of doctrine, their Commission was general to preach to all Nations; they were endued with special power to work miracles, and punish the disobedient in an extraordinary manner.

secondarily prophets] Those who by a special and extraordinary gift interpreted prophetical Scriptures to edification, exhortation, and consolation (1 Cor. 14:3). Or those who foretold infallibly things to come, as Agabus (Acts 21:10), and the daughters of Philip the Evangelist (Acts 21:9). If it be objected that the Law and Prophets were but until John; the answer is easy, that Christ there speaketh of such Prophets who foretold his coming in the flesh.

thirdly teachers] That is, those which were ordinarily and orderly called to expound the Scriptures for the edification of the Church, and to maintain the truth against false teachers (Eph. 4:11).

after that miracles] As we call those Justices which are to execute justice, so the Apostle calleth here miracles those who had power to work miracles, both in curing diseases that were simply incurable by natural means, and in inflicting miraculously fearful punishments upon those who opposed the truth and lied to the Holy Spirit, as Paul inflicted upon Elymas the Sorcerer, and Peter upon Anania and Saphira.

then the gifts of healing] The gift of healing may be distinguished from the gifts of miracles mentioned before in this, that those who had the gift of healing only could do no other miracles, but the other of whom the Apostle spake before, wrought many other miracles, and the not only cured incurable diseases, but raised also the dead, whereas these only cured diseases, and for the most part such as were ordinary, yet they cured them not by ordinary means or medicines, but only with a word or a touch, or the like.

helps] Assistants to the principal officers of the Church, as Deacons, who took care of the poor sick strangers and orphans, and widows, etc.

diversities of tongues] Or, kinds. Because the Corinthians were proud of this gift, to take down their crest, and abate their conceit of themselves, in regard of this gift of the Spirit, it seemeth that he nameth it in the last place, t being as the used the matter of least use in the church.

English Annotations (1645)

It is difficult to overstate the importance of the Abrahamic covenant. In this historical administration of the eternal covenant of grace, both the substance of God’s redemption and the method by which He will accomplish that redemption gain a clarity that they had not possessed before. The Abrahamic covenant does not constitute a new direction in God’s redemptive activity, to be certain, but it does represent a massive step forward in the revelation of how that redemptive activity would proceed.

STEPHEN G. MYERS, GOD TO US – COVENANT THEOLOGY IN SCRIPTURE, 229.