Introduction
What was the original meaning of the second psalm? What consideration should modern interpreters give to the theological backdrop and the original author’s conscious prophetism? What consideration should be given to subsequent elaboration and application of the second psalm by New Covenant leadership? How does Psalm 2 apply to our lives today?
Summary
Psalm 2 begins with an interrogative and an investigation into the rebellious uproar of the nations (Ps. 2:1).[1] The “kings of the earth” living in the vicinity of Israel are rebelling “against the LORD and his anointed” (Ps. 2:2). [2] According to Judean usage, “anointed” refers to the king(s) of Israel.[3] The emphasis is on what the conspirators are saying: “Let us burst their [i.e., the LORD and his anointed] bonds asunder, and cast their cords from us” (Ps. 2:3).[4] As one historically significant commentary explains, the mutual desire of the antagonists is to “cast off all signes [sic] of subjection to God, and his anointed.”[5] The uproar and rebellion depicted in Psalm 2:1-3 is nothing less than high-handed, murderous insubordination.[6]
Uproar and rebellion, however, are futile (Ps. 2:4-5). Their shouts of rebellion are no match for God’s proclamation and instruction (Ps. 2:6, 8-9). As one commentator explains, “The LORD himself has consecrated his servant-monarch on the summit of Zion” (Ps. 2:6).[7]
The “anointed” then proclaims the LORD’s decree of divine sonship, i.e., adoption (Ps. 2:7).[8] The LORD’s initial proclamation, “I have set my king on Zion, my holy hill” (Ps. 2:6), is paralleled by a promise, “I will make the nations your heritage, and the ends of the earth your possession. You shall break them with a rod of iron, and dash them in pieces like a potter’s vessel” (Ps. 2:8-9). The divine enthronement’s promised result is victory universal in scope.
The kings of the earth are mercifully put on notice. On the one hand, they can submit and kiss the feet of the LORD’s “anointed” (Ps. 2:12a), or, on the other hand, they can double-down in their rebellion, incite the anger of God, and perish in the way (Ps. 2:12b). The confidence of this dire and definitive warning (Ps. 2:10-12b) stands in sharp contrast to the inquisitive dismay dominating the initial stanza (Ps. 2:1-3). The conclusion, “Happy are all who take refuge in him” (Ps. 2:12c), is both a beatitude and epiphonema, enhancing and exaggerating the result of those who “Serve the LORD with fear, with trembling kiss his feet” (Ps. 2:11-12a).[9]
Classification
Psalm 2 is commonly referred to as a royal psalm.[10] Why? Because its subject matter deals with the Judean monarchy. Specifically, the second psalm depicts a coronation scene. Detecting traces of a coronation in Psalm 2 is understandably not easy for Christians living in the United States of America. Our citizenry has not been subject to a royal sovereign for over two centuries. In general, we are thoroughly unacquainted with the rite, ritual, and rhythm of royal coronation. That would not have been the case for the original audience. They would have been deeply familiar with royal coronation, and commensurately attuned to see and sense undertones of royal coronation in the second psalm.[11]
Structure and Outline
The shape of Psalm 2 is comprised of four stanzas or divisions.[12] According to the analysis of one commentator:
The poem contains four strophes each of which is divided into two substrophes of bicola or tricola, plus one bicolon or tricolon:
The Tumult of the nations (vv. 1 and 2 plus 3);
The Laughter of God (vv. 4 and 5 plus 6);
The Divine Sonship of the Royal Anointed (vv. 7 and 8 plus 9);
Dire Warning to Kings of the Earth (vv. 10 and 11 plus 12abc).”[13]
Within this straightforward fourfold structure, other authors have detected an additional chiastic structure:
A – The Rebellious Nations (vv. 1-3)
B – God’s Rule in heaven (vv. 4-6)
B´ – God’s Decree (vv. 7-9)
A´ – The Rule of the Messiah on Earth (vv. 10-12)[14]
The chiastic structure explicitly places the emphasis on the LORD’s pronouncement and promise: “I have set my king on Zion, my holy hill” (Ps. 2:6) / “Ask of me, and I will make the nations your heritage, and the ends of the earth your possession. You shall break them with a rod of iron, and dash them in pieces like a potter’s vessel” (Ps. 2:8-9). This emphasis is bracketed and enclosed by stark contrast: Rebelling Nations (Ps. 2:1-3) / Ruling Messiah (Ps. 2:10-12).
Occasion and Authorship
Psalm 2 deals with coronation, kingship, and kingdom, and the occasion of its composition is presumably related. As one commentary suggests, “The identification of the psalm with the coronation of a Davidic king is clarified by the parallels between this psalm and the promises given to David in the oracle of Nathan (2 Sam 7:8-16).”[15] In 2 Samuel 7, the LORD told David that after he died he would establish the throne of the kingdom of his descendant (2 Sam. 7:12). In addition, the LORD also promised to establish the Davidic throne forever (2 Sam. 7:16). This is typically referred to as the “Davidic Covenant.”[16] As one commentator observed, “The psalm reflects a deep understanding of God’s covenant with David . . . God’s relationship with David and his sons, who were also “anointed,” involves the promise that through the Davidic dynasty God will establish his universal rule over the earth.”[17]
Psalm 2 lacks a title or superscription ascribing authorship. In Acts 4:24-26, however, authorship is clearly attributed to David: “Sovereign Lord . . . it is you who said by the Holy Spirit through our ancestor David, your servant: ‘Why did the Gentiles rage, and the peoples imagine vain things?’”
Initial Interpretation
So far I have briefly summarized and examined Psalm 2. I hope it is apparent that there are multiple layers of meaning and significance that must be sifted through in the interpretive process. First and foremost, I have sought to establish the original meaning and royal character of Psalm 2. David is the author and this psalm is about the coronation of a Davidic king. The LORD anointed David to be a king of Israel (1 Samuel 16), and years later the LORD revealed to David that his seed would sit on his throne, and that it would become an everlasting kingdom (2 Sam. 7:8-16). With respect to the psalm’s royal character and original purpose, the significance and meaning of the second psalm begins with the following observations: the “nations” / “peoples” / “kings” / “rulers” refer to nations in vicinity of Israel; the “anointed” refers to a Davidic scion, perhaps as early as ~950s BC; the human king depicted is associated with the monarchy and state of Israel, i.e., the Davidic kingdom. In what follows, I will endeavor to walk through pertinent details in consideration of the interpretive process.
Everlasting and Worldwide Kingdom
In Psalm 2:6, the LORD proclaims: “I have set my king on Zion, my holy hill.” The LORD also gives instruction to this king: “Ask of me, and I will make the nations your heritage, and the ends of the earth your possession. You shall break them with a rod of iron, and dash them in pieces like a potter’s vessel” (Ps. 2:8-9). This clearly establishes worldwide jurisdiction of the Davidic kingdom. But why? Why would David depict the jurisdiction of the Davidic dynasty as worldwide and universal in scope? Wasn’t the “anointed” a human king in Israel? And wasn’t Israel associated with the land of promise and inheritance? I think the answer to that question is found in consideration of David’s theological backdrop.
The LORD revealed to David that his kingdom would be established forever (2 Sam. 7:16).[18] Later, in 2 Samuel 23:5 and Psalm 89:29-38, David consciously reflects on this promised dynasty. It is clear from the original blessing of David (2 Sam. 7:8-16), David’s immediate response (2 Sam. 7:18-29), e.g., his thanks (2 Sam. 7:18-21), prayer (2 Sam. 7:22-24), and praise (2 Sam. 25-29), as well as David’s subsequent reflection upon and understanding of it (2 Sam. 23:5; Ps. 89:29-38), that David himself understood that the promise given to him was a real, meaningful, and tangible fulfillment of the blessing of Abraham.[19] In a significant article on the blessing of David, Walter C. Kaiser, Jr. clarifies that “What God promised to David was not a brand new, unrelated theme. There was a single program of God already in vogue and therefore a theology which could “inform” or contribute to this new addition to that ancient promise.”[20] The depiction of worldwide jurisdiction in the second psalm should be interpreted with respect to both the Abrahamic covenant and promise as well as the Davidic. The LORD said to Abram, “I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name great, so that you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and the one who curses you I will curse; and in you all the families of the earth shall be blessed” (Gen. 12:2-3).[21] The promise of a Davidic dynasty is a concrete fulfillment of the Abrahamic promise.
Conscious Prophetism
In light of the discussion above, in the interpretive process of the second psalm, a sensible question to ask is this: Is Psalm 2 a conscious prophetism of David? Did David understand he was speaking prophetically about the “anointed”? If so, then the original meaning is much broader than the narrow meaning sketched above.
I believe Psalm 2 is a conscious prophetism. The immediate theological backdrop for Psalm 2 is the Davidic covenant (2 Sam. 7:8-16), which, as mentioned above, was “not a brand new, unrelated theme.” The same “single program of God” and theological background that informed David’s understanding of the promise in 2 Samuel 7, would also have informed his understanding of second psalm while he was writing under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Some authors suggest that the worldwide jurisdiction of the Davidic king depicted in the second psalm is because God is the universal God. [22] I don’t think that is the only reason. My tentative suggestion is that David depicted the worldwide jurisdiction not only because God is the universal God but also because God revealed to David that the blessing of Abraham, universal and worldwide in scope, would involve David’s dynasty. The earthly Davidic dynasty is presented in worldwide terms because David understood the import of God’s everlasting unconditional promise. Accordingly, there is warrant to tentatively conclude that in a real and meaningful sense David was engaged in conscious prophetism in his composition of the second psalm.
New Covenant Use of Psalm 2
No interpretation of the second psalm is complete without consideration of the New Testament. The New Covenant leadership frequently quoted, referenced, and alluded to Psalm 2 in the Scriptures contained in the New Testament.[23] Jesus’ messianic office was confirmed, his crucifixion was explained, and the meaning of his resurrection was interpreted by his disciples, all with respect to Psalm 2.[24]
Above I briefly mentioned that Davidic authorship is established from Acts 4. Acts 4 is significant because not only does it establish the authorship of the second psalm, but it also clearly establishes that the “anointed” in this psalm has been interpreted as “the coming deliverer of David’s line at least as early as the middle of the first century B.C.”[25] Thus, Psalm 2 is prophetic not only with respect to the Messiah but also his enemies. As one commentary explains, “In OT times, the nations of the world were portrayed as rebellious at the time of the coronation (Ps 2:1-3), yet they would (or could) be subdued by the Davidic king . . . This rebellion of the nations is interpreted by the earliest Christians as referring to the opposition to Jesus of Herod, Pontius Pilate, the Gentiles and Israel (Acts 4:24-28).”[26] The New Covenant leadership interpreted Psalm 2 in continuity with its original meaning and purpose as a royal psalm depicting both the rebellion of enemies and the reign of the “anointed,” e.g., at Jesus’ baptismal anointing the heavenly voice pronounced: “You are my Son” (Luke 3:22; Ps. 2:7), and, as the enemy nations rebelled in response to the coronation and anointing of former Davidic king(s), likewise the Gospels depict the enemies of Jesus, the “anointed,” rebelling in response to his coronation.
One of the most interesting New Testament allusions to the second psalm is found in Revelation 11:14-19, when the seventh trumpet sounds: “Then the seventh angel blew his trumpet, and there were loud voices in heaven, saying, ‘The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah, and he will reign forever and ever’” (Rev. 11:15). The uproar and judgment depicted in Psalm 2 is the background of Revelation 11:14-19. Not only does Psalm 2:1-3 describe the uproar and rebellion of Jesus’ pre-Crucifixion enemies, as Acts 4:25-26 explains, but Psalm 2 also depicts the foolish uproar and rebellion of Jesus’ post-Resurrection enemies. In Revelation 11:14-19, all the enemies of “our Lord and of his Messiah,” whether past, present, or future, we see that the shouts of their rebellion is no match for God’s proclamation. The second psalm resonates in the worship of the twenty-four elders, who represent the church.[27] They worship and sing:
We give thanks, Lord God Almighty, who are and who were, for you have taken your great power and begun to reign. The nations raged, but your wrath has come, and the time for judging the dead, for rewarding your servants, the prophets and saints and all who fear your name, both small and great, and for destroying those who destroy the earth” (Rev. 11:17b-18).
In the same way the second psalm was paradigmatic for the New Covenant leadership, likewise it will be paradigmatic for the church’s eternal praise.
Application
The second psalm has many appropriate modern applications. In light of recent and ongoing events related to the Coronavirus pandemic/endemic, believers would do well to meditate on and apply Psalm 2 to their lives. Think about how somebody in the original context could have looked at the immediate circumstances and had a bleak outlook. For example, they could have given themselves to worry and anxiety because of the uproar of the nations and the rebellion of the kings of the earth (Ps. 2:1-3). Somebody in Israel could have thought in the midst of that turmoil the future trajectory for Israel looked rather bleak. Likewise, today a Christian might be tempted to only see a bleak trajectory for the world and the church. For example, recently in the United States of America, because of health concerns and a desire to preserve public health and tranquility, temporarily there was fairly widespread suspension of public gatherings, including public assembly for religious worship. In Romans 13, Christians are obviously commanded to submit to civil magistrates. The Scriptures clearly reveal that God “hath ordained civil magistrates, to be, under Him, over the people, for His own glory, and the public good.”[28] It is a Christian’s duty to pray for the magistrates, to obey their lawful commands, and to be subject to their authority, for conscience’ sake (cf., Rom. 13:5). I know many Christians find our recent and ongoing circumstances to be overwhelming, and they are worried about how Federal and State mandates and directives regulating the public sphere could set a precedence for future abuse and tyranny. I know many brothers and sisters can only see darkness and more darkness in the series of mandates and directives, e.g., “stay at home” and “shelter in place” and “get vaccinated” and etc. etc. etc. But I would encourage everyone to walk by faith and not by sight. What was the redemptive-theological backdrop for the Apostles? Specifically, for Paul? What was the redemptive-theological backdrop when he commanded, “Let every person be subject to the governing authorities; for there is no authority except from God, and those authorities that exist have been instituted by God” (Rom. 13:1)? It was the New Covenant. Jesus Christ was the tangible fulfillment of both the Davidic and Abrahamic promises. Jesus Christ is the substance of the blessing of Abraham. Jesus Christ is the substance of the Davidic dynasty. God alone is the supreme Lord and King of all the world, and he has enthroned His “anointed,” our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Let us, therefore, trust God who is currently calling the church, both corporately and as individual Christians, to submit to the magistrates’ just and legal authority. King Jesus is reigning, and his jurisdiction is worldwide. The redemptive-theological backdrop for Paul was the same for Peter, who instructed, “For the Lord’s sake accept the authority of every human institution, whether of the emperor as supreme, or of governors, as sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right. For it is God’s will that by doing right you should silence the ignorance of the foolish” (1 Pet. 2:13-14). It is a common mistake to only think and talk about King Jesus’ reign and rule as manifested, experienced, and felt in the visible administration and government of the church, e.g., the keys of the kingdom, administration of baptism and Lord’s Supper, etc. But King Jesus’ reign is also manifested, experienced, and felt through the visible and earthly administration, authority, and power of civil magistrates. As Paul explained, “there is no authority except from God, and those authorities that exist have been instituted by God” (Rom. 13:1). And who has been appointed over all these mediating authorities? Psalm 2 informs us it is the “anointed” King Jesus. No matter our circumstances or how we feel, we ought never to forget what Jesus told his disciples: “All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me” (Matt. 28:18).
Modern application of the second psalm will encourage all to trust God and walk by faith during temporary and difficult times. Psalm 2 is a snapshot of King Jesus presently reigning. We see King Jesus seated on his throne (Ps. 2:6). We see King Jesus holding his powerful scepter (“rod of iron” Ps. 2:9). We see King Jesus riding the Gospel and calling all nations to submit to his reign and rule (“be warned . . . kiss his feet” (Ps. 2:10-12). If we have ears to hear, then we can also hear King Jesus proclaiming the beatitude-benediction: “Happy are all who take refuge in him” (Ps. 2:12c). Right now in the middle of the Coronavirus pandemic/endemic and its societal, economic, and political fallout, there is no reason to be overwhelmed by doubt, fear, or anxiety. The second psalm gives each and every believer an incontrovertible reason to wholeheartedly trust God: Jesus is King. Each and every believer should remember and meditate on Psalm 2. Each and every believer can grow daily in stalwart faith and take refuge in King Jesus. The royal “anointed” in the second psalm, King Jesus, is going to conquer every nation and every king and every virus and every disease and every downturned economy and every sin and every death. Let us, therefore, submit ourselves to King Jesus and his righteous rule and reign, which King Jesus makes felt in the life of believers in the visible church as well as through the civil magistrates. Let us, therefore, thank King Jesus for subduing us to himself. Let us, therefore, praise King Jesus for conquering all of his enemies, for in conquering his enemies he conquers each and every enemy assailing the church. Let us, therefore, in difficult and relatively unprecedented circumstances, truly believe that those who believe and take refuge in King Jesus are “happy” (Ps. 2:12c).
Conclusion
The blessing of Abraham and the Davidic covenant are essential factors to be taken into consideration in the interpretive process of the second psalm. Likewise the inauguration of the New Covenant through the birth, life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus, and his commensurate “enthronement” as the “LORD’s anointed,” it is the theological backdrop for interpreting and applying Psalm 2 to the life of each and every believer. God the Son Incarnate is the “anointed,” and God has decreed his divine sonship, i.e., adoption. Thus, Jesus Christ is “King of kings and Lord of lords” (Rev. 19:16). The result for each and every believer? Indeed, “Happy are all who take refuge in him” (Ps. 2:12c).
[1] “The word “why” (לָמָּה) is used only once at the beginning of v 1a, but it dominates the whole introductory section (2:1-3) and is implied in the following lines. Thus it is repeated four times in the translation to convey the power of the passage” (Psalms 1-50, 2nd ed. by Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate in Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 19, gen. ed. Bruce M. Metzger, David A. Hubbard, and Glenn W. Barker (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2004), 62-63).For additional discussion on this initial figure of speech in Psalm 2:1, see explanation of “Ellipsis” and examples of interrogatives listed under heading “Repetition: Particles From Preceding Clause” in E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech Used in the Bible: Explained and Illustrated (New York: E. and J. B. Young and Company, 1898), 1-2, 94-95.
[2] All Scripture quotations, unless otherwise indicated, are taken from the New Revised Standard Version.
[3] Anointing symbolized divine appointment; see usage in 1 Samuel 10:1.
[4] “Where [the verb “to say”] is omitted the emphasis is to be placed on what is said rather than on the act of saying it . . . Ps. ii. 2.—‘Why do . . . the rulers take counsel together against the Lord, and against his anointed, saying’” (E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech Used in the Bible, 32).
[5] Annotations upon all the books of the Old and New Testament wherein the text is explained, doubts resolved, Scriptures paralleled and various readings observed by the joynt-labour of certain learned divines, thereunto appointed, and therein employed, as is expressed in the preface (London: John Legatt and John Raworth, 1645). Note: Annotations is a one-volume Bible commentary and its folios lack pagination.
[6] “1.c. “Murmur murderously”: literally, “growl a vain thing” (הגה, “growl, murmur,” probably being onomatopoeic)” (Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 1-50, 63).
[7] Samuel Terrien, The Psalms: Strophic Structure and Theological Commentary (Grand Rapids: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003), 83.
[8] “Psalm 2 adopts the terminology of divine sonship, but transforms it into a metaphor of adoption (cf. Gen 30:3; 50:23)” (Samuel Terrien, The Psalms, 84).
[9] For explanation and discussion of epiphonema, see E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech Used in the Bible, 464.
[10] “Since its subject concerns the anointing and coronation of a Davidic king (cf. 2 Kings 11:12), Psalm 2 is classified as a royal psalm” (Psalms by Willem A. VanGemeren in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary, vol. 5, Psalms – Song of Songs, gen. ed. Frank E. Gaebelein [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991], 64).
[11] 2 Kings 11:10-12 briefly describes the coronation scene of a Davidic king. Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate provide the following summary: “A coronation involved the setting of a crown upon a new king’s head, the formal presentation of a document to the new king, and his proclamation and anointing” (Psalms 1-50, 64).
[12] For a thorough examination of the strophic structure of Psalm 2, see Samuel Terrien, The Psalms, 77-87.
[13] Samuel Terrien, The Psalms, 80.
[14] Willem A. VanGemeren, Psalms, 64. See also analysis of structure, parallelism, and chiasmus by Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 1-50, 64-65.
[15] Peter C. Craigie and Marin E. Tate, Psalms 1-50, 64. Likewise, Willem A. VanGemeren suggests: “It is preferable to read the psalm in light of Nathan’s prophecy of God’s covenant with David (2 Sam 7:5-16)” (Psalms, 64).
[16] For explanation and lengthy discussion of the Davidic covenant, see O. Palmer Robertson, The Christ of the Covenants (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1980), 229-269.
[17] Willem A. VanGemeren, Psalms, 65.
[18] The following section dependent upon discussion in Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., “The Blessings of David: The Charter for Humanity,” in The Law and the Prophets: Old Testament Studies in Honor of Oswald Thompson Allis (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1974), 298-318.
[19] “Since the “this” of II Samuel 7:19 refers to the content of the promise, more specifically, the “seed” of Abraham, Israel, and David, which is to live and reign forever and be the Lord’s channel of blessing to all the nations of the earth, the law in this context is the principle by which all mankind is to be blessed. . . . We call this torah a “charter” because it is the plan and prescription for God’s kingdom whereby the whole world shall be blessed with the total content of the promise doctrine. It is a grant conferring powers, rights, and privileges to David and his seed for the benefit of all mankind. . . . With the realization that he has just been granted an everlasting dynasty, dominion, and kingdom, David blurts out in uncontainable joy, “And this [new addition to the promise doctrine] is the Charter for all mankind, O Lord God!” So the ancient promise of blessing to all mankind would continue; only now it would involve David’s dynasty, throne, and kingdom. Indeed, it was a veritable “charter” granted as God’s gift for the future of all mankind” (Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., “The Blessing of David: The Charter for Humanity,” 314-315).
[20] Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., “The Blessings of David: The Charter for Humanity,” 308.
[21] For a thorough grammatical analysis and significance of this divine promise, see Oswald T. Allis, “The Blessing of Abraham.” The Princeton Theological Review, 25.2 (1927): 263-298.
[22] “A central theme of the entire biblical tradition is the kingdom of God. In the monarchic period, the kingdom of God is identified with the state of Israel (and later Judah). That state had a human king, but ultimately its king was God; Israel was a theocracy. Psalm 2 clearly reflects this joint-kingship of the state. The Lord, the Enthroned One (v 4), was the universal king, but his earthly representative was his “son,” the Davidic king. Because God is a universal God, the earthly king’s jurisdiction is also presented in worldwide terms (2:8-9), though with respect to the Davidic kings, the world-wide authority always remained an ideal rather than a reality” (Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 1-50, 68).
[23] For exhaustive analysis, consult listings for Psalm 2 in Index of Scripture in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, eds. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2007).
[24] “The second psalm is one of the psalms most quoted in the NT. It was favored by the apostles as scriptural confirmation of Jesus’ messianic office and his expected glorious return with power and authority. The writers of the synoptic Gospels alluded to Psalm 2 in their account of Jesus’ baptism, when the Father proclaimed him to be his son (v. 7; cf. Matt 3:17; mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). With the words of v.7, Jesus introduced the beginning of the messianic age. . . . The first-century church applied the second psalm to the Messiah as an explanation of the crucifixion of Christ by the rulers (Herod and Pontius Pilate), the nations, and Israel (the priests, scribes, and Pharisees). They had conspired together against the Messiah of God (Acts 4:25-28). Paul applied it to Jesus’ ministry: his sonship, resurrection, and ascension to glory, which confirmed God’s promises in Jesus as the Messiah (Acts 13:32-33)” (Willem A. VanGemeren, Psalms, 65).
[25] F. F. Bruce, Commentary on the Book of Acts: The English Text with Introduction, Exposition and Notes (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1955), 106.
[26] Peter C. Craigie and Marvin E. Tate, Psalms 1-50, 69.
[27] “These elders represent the church of the Old Testament and the New” (Joel R. Beeke, Revelation (Grand Rapids: Reformation Heritage Books, 2016), 335.
[28] The Westminster Confession of Faith, (Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2012), 101.