The locus classicus on civil government in the NT is Rom. 13:1-7. In making this statement, however, one should caution against looking only to these verses to understand the biblical teaching on civil government. They do not address themselves, e.g., to the question of what form this government should take, nor to the question of conscientious disobedience, nor to the question of whether Christians may participate in government. In considering government in the NT, due consideration must be given not only to Pauline theory and practice, but also to Christ’s teaching and practice under Jewish autocratic rule and Roman imperial authority. . . .

The concise statement of Paul in Rom. 13:1 with respect to “governing authorities” is that “there is no authority except from God, and those that exist have been instituted by God” (cf. 1 Pet. 2:14). All authority is ultimately derived from God, even though people may ignore Him or reject Him. God is sovereign over His creation, the world, and the people who live in it. The testimony of the OT agrees with this (cf. Gen. 9:5f.; Isa. 105; 45:1; Dan. 4:34f. [MT 31f.]; Ps. 75;6f. [MT 7f.]). The judgments of the omnipotent God on the nations serve to underscore the truth of His sovereignty (cf. Ex. 7-12; Joel 3; Isa. 13-27; etc.). In the NT Christ acknowledged the authority of the Jewish Sanhedrin, the high priest, Herod the king, and Pilate the Roman procurator (cf. Mt. 26:59; 27:1f.; etc.); He even recognized the civil authority of Caesar (22:15-22). Eschatologically, God’s final judgment on the empires of the world and the dragon that deceives the nations confirms the teaching that God is the ultimate authority from whom all other authority is derived (Rev. 17-20). It is then inconsistent with the Scriptures to consider that human governments derive their legitimate authority ultimately from a “social compact,” or from “the consent of the governed,” or even from “the will of the majority.”

The state, then, may be considered an expression of God’s common grace extended to all mankind. hence, to resist the governing authorities is tantamount to resisting God (Rom. 13:2). . . . Whatever the character of a ruler in NT times, whether high priest or king, procurator or emperor, the authority vested in him was to be honored and respected. Paul’s own practice under the autocratic Roman government was to acknowledge its authority. He frequently asserted his own obedient subjection to the laws of the empire, and even when imprisoned, his appeal to Caesar was a further recognition of the supreme authority whose laws he had obeyed and whose protection he sought. In this he followed the example of Christ, who tried by Pilate, a man unworthy of his high office. Even though the trial proved to be a miscarriage of justice, Jesus firmly reminded him, “You would have no authority over me, unless it had been given you from above” (Jn. 19:11).

The governing authorities are vested with twofold responsibility: the administration of justice and the promotion of the general welfare. Regarding the first, Paul states that the government wields the sword as a “servant of God, an avenger who brings wrath upon the one who practices evil” (Rom. 13:4). It is thus responsible for restraining evil by punishing crime and violence. Furthermore, the justice meted out upon evil reflect to a greater or lesser degree the righteous judgment of God, the Judge of all the earth. The ministers of divine justice, therefore, must take appropriate measures that fairness, firmness, and mercy be exhibited. Only in this way will retribution function for the defense and encouragement of good people as well as for the punishment of criminals.

The second responsibility of government is the promotion of the general welfare (Rom. 13:4-7). The OT prophets, concerned about the needy, especially urged upon kings their responsibility to care for “the afflicted and needy,” for “the orphan and the widow,” and even for the resident alien (cf. Ps. 72:1-4, 12-14; Jer. 22:16; Ezk. 34:16). This general welfare was described by Paul in another connection. When urging Christians to pray “for kings and all who are in authority,” he expressed the reason: “in order that you may lead a tranquil and quiet life” (1 Tim. 3:2). Without doubt, the general peace brought by the Romans (pax Romana) was one of the great blessings for the general well-being of the people in that period. Paul may already have had a premonition of times of distress and persecution, especially for Christians, in the decades ahead. Peter also acknowledged government’s positive role of promoting the general good when he instructed believers to submit themselves to “governors as sent by Him for the punishment of evildoers and the praise of those who do right” (1 Pet. 2:14). The public recognition of those who do right is a tacit acknowledgement that government is responsible for promoting moral standards in the community and nation. There may be a difference of opinion about how much government should do, but consideration should be given to maintaining programs of public health and education, to encouraging philanthropic activities, and to protecting the disadvantaged from abuses by the wealthy and powerful sectors of society. . . .

Although human government is divinely instituted, it does not follow that its authority is unlimited. On the contrary, the Scriptures give ample evidence that when governments usurp the authority of God by demanding subjection to laws contrary to clear commands of Scripture, they have exceeded their authority. Acts 5:29 summarizes the concluding arguments of believers before the Sanhedrin: “We must obey God rather than men.” No one may claim that he is entitled to disobey the laws merely because of his personal disagreement with them. In totalitarian societies some laws may be hard to accept, but Christians as well as other citizens are responsible to obey them. No Christian, however, may be forced to declare “Caesar is Lord” as a recognition of Caesar’s deity and as a denial of the Lordship of Christ. Furthermore, when governments oppress the righteous, reward evildoing, prevent justice, and subvert the ordinances of God, it may be necessary for Christians to resist them.

The major difficulty is arriving at a consensus about when such a government has gone too far. The nature of the opposition to be offered is also a debatable issue. Resistance, demonstrations, and propagandizing for a particular position within the law is one thing. Civil disobedience that goes beyond the law, such as advocating or participating in the violent overthrow of the government is another. Such critical situations in the political affairs of government call for special periods of prayer “for kings and all who are in authority” (1 Tim. 2:1-4). This is not simply a pious platitude, but rather a sincere realization that “we wrestle against flesh and blood” (Eph. 6:12) and that “the weapons of our warfare are not worldly” (2 Cor. 10:4).

David’s experiences with Saul and other enemies amply illustrate this point. Hence, such prayers as Ps. 35:1; 43:1; 119:154; 129:1-4 may prove to be an encouragement. It is God who reigns and controls the destinies of the defiant rulers (Ps. 2:4; Rom. 9:14-24). In Rev. 6:10; 11:17f.; 15:2-4 the prayers of the saints persecuted and martyred by a demonically empowered world empire may hold the clue for Christians living under less severe conditions. Their trust is in a sovereign God who remains in control of political powers and who ultimately will vindicate the cause of the righteous.

P. R. Gilchrist, “Government” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 2:545-546.